Causes of Confederation

Causes of Confederation

"Political life under the Act of Union encountered many difficulties. Political instability undermined the colony's ability to govern itself effectively. London's adoption of free trade led to deep uncertainty as to the maintenance of Canadian independence from the powerful United States. Canada under the Union regime was ill-equipped to secure its future.

The political, economic and military problems experienced by the Province of Canada are also experienced by the other British colonies in North America. These common problems prompted the colonies to think about a solution which would take the form of a new common political structure."

Thus, there were a number of factors during the 1850s and 1860s that together help explain why Canadian politicians chose to form a federal union in 1867. This process and the union that resulted with the British North America Act is known as Confederation. 

Texts by RECITUS, + additions by Russell/Rombough

Reformers Retire:  Responsible Government with Difficulties and Divisions

Following the success of the Reformers in their quest for responsible government the political situation in the Province of Canada changed in the 1850’s.  The retirement of Robert Baldwin and Louis Hippolyte Lafontaine from active politics and the lack of a common cause meant that the alliance of reformers faded away and new political parties emerged.

There were four main political parties during the period about 1854 to 1867, two each from Upper and Lower Canada.  In Upper Canada the Tories were now the Liberal-Conservatives as some moderate Reformers joined with them, and the more radical Reformers were the Clear Grits, later known as the Liberals.  In Lower Canada, the moderate Reformers and French Canadian Tories formed the Parti Bleu, while the more radical French Canadian Reformers became known as the Parti Rouge.  With four parties vying for power in the Legislative Assembly it was difficult to have a stable government as elections were generally close and parties would have to work together in coalitions.  This was known as the period of Ministerial Instability as there were many governments formed over a ten year period. 

Along with the instability of the government, an unwritten convention or rule known as the double majority principle had taken hold.  This held that legislation affecting both parts of the province needed to have a majority of votes from not only the entire assembly, but also from members from each of Upper and Lower Canada.  The result was that new laws were difficult to pass.

Introductory text by Matt Russell for LEARN

Parti Rouge

The main opponents to the Catholic Church in Lower Canada were the anti-clerical liberals, who formed the political group known as the Rouges.  As a political group the Rouges were liberals, but their ideology was not uniform with some members being more moderate and others more radical.

The radical members of the Rouges were the most anti-clerical.  Centred on the Institut Canadien, these men, like Louis-Antoine Dessaulles, were fervently against the Catholic Church and called for the separation of Church and state.  They were republicans and admired the United States so much that some even called for the annexation of Canada into the American union!  

The Rouge movement in Lower Canada was split in 1858, when 138 members left the Institut Canadien in Montreal.   These moderate Rouges sought to advance the liberal cause through politics. Led by Antoine-Aimé Dorion, the Rouge party was the main opponent to the Bleus, which were supported by the Catholic Church, in the 1850s and 1860s.  Dorion’s political success in Montreal was due to his moderation and promotion of economic liberalism, which attracted support from the city’s English community.  However, the Bleus were a political force in the countryside and the Church actively encouraged people to vote for them, reminding people that “Heaven is blue and hell is red”.   

The Dorion-led party found themselves as a minority in the Legislative Assembly.  Despite being liberals, they often could not find common cause with the liberals from Upper Canada - the Clear Grit party led by George Brown (except for a short-lived government of 3 days in 1858!).  These anglophone liberals advocated “Rep-by-Pop” or Representation by Population, where the number of seats in the assembly would be determined by the number of people who lived in an area.  With the growing number of immigrants arriving in Upper Canada from Britain, Dorion felt that French Canada’s political situation would worsen if the Clear Grits got their way.  If Rep by Pop were to be granted, the French would then be in the minority, and Dorion and his Rouge party feared that would cause the loss of the French language and culture in Canada.

In 1864, Dorion refused to join the Great Coalition of the Bleus, Clear Grits and Liberal-Conservatives and their plan for a federal union.  As politicians like George Brown, John A. Macdonald, and George-Étienne Cartier moved forward, Dorion opposed their project, arguing against Confederation in the assembly and through speeches and articles.  Instead, Dorion advocated for a renewal of the union of Upper and Lower Canada that would give more power to the local authorities.  In the end, the Confederation project was approved by the Assembly of the Province of Lower Canada.  After Confederation in 1867, the Rouges merged with the Clear Grits to form the Liberal Party.

Text by Matt Russell, WQSB.